Enzymes

Enzymes 

Enzymes are biological molecule (proteins) that act as catalyst and help complex reactions occur everywhere in life (living organism). Let’s say we ate a piece of meat. Proteases would go to work and help break down the peptide bond between the amino acid.  Enzymes are very specific and only work with certain substrate:

As enzyme concentration increase, the rate of reaction (ROR) of reaction also increases until no more substrate left. Rate of reaction can be affected by concentration of substance, temperature, Ph level, and other substance that we called as “inhibitor” that is why it is important to measure the initial rate of reaction; because it represent the real activity of enzyme.

Transport Mechanism

                                                       Transport Mechanism                                         

Transport Mechanism - Passive

Passive transport is diffusion across cell membrane that does not require energy. It is dependent on the permeability of the cell membrane. 

Type: 

•   Diffusion- Simple diffusion means that the molecule can pass directly through the cell membrane. Diffusion is the movement of material from an area of high concentration of that substance to a lower concentration area of that substance. ex : O2 and CO2
•      Facilitated Diffusion- facilitated diffusion utilizes cell membrane protein channel to allow charged molecules to freely diffuse in and out of the cell. Ex: water
•        Osmosis- Osmosis is a special case of diffusion involving water molecules. Water molecules move from area of high concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.

Water potential: The ability and tendency for water molecule to move from one place to another is known as water potential. And the symbol for water potential is the greek letter “Ψ”. Because of its nature to dilute, water always move from an area of high water potential to a low water potential area. Just like what we can see when water in an area with high water potential move toward the low water potential area to try help dilute material like, sugar for instance.

Pressure Potential: The movement of water from a high to a low concentration gradient can be prevented or slowed down by the increasing level of pressure in the low concentration gradient solution, since pressure increases the water potential.

•   Filtration- Filtration is the movement of solute molecules and water across a membrane by normal cardiovascular pressure. The size of the membrane pores indicate which molecules may pass. Some function of the liver and kidney are based upon filtration

Transport Mechanism – Active

Active transport is the process by which dissolved molecules move across a cell membrane from a lower concentration to a higher concentration. Which mean that the molecule move against the concentration gradient, therefore they need an input of energy from the cell (Adenosine Triphosphate)(ATP)

Bulk Transport: The movement of macromolecules such as protein and polysaccharides into or out of the cell. There are two types of bulk transport, exocytosis (going out) and endocytosis (going inside); and both require the help of energy (ATP)

•          Exocytosis: is the process by which materials are removed from the cells. For Example: the secretion of digestive enzyme, where vesicle from the Golgi apparatus carry the enzyme to the cell surface, bind it and finally release their content.
•           Endocytosis: Is the reverse of exocytosis and involves the swallow up of material by the cell to form a small sack inside the cell

Lipid

Biological Molecule - Lipid

A biomolecule or biological molecule is any molecule that is present in living organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Macro Molecule	Micro Molecule
Carbohydrates	Glucose
Protein	Amino Acid
Lipid	Glycerol  - Fatty acid

Lipid:

Lipids are one of the four major groups of organic molecules. Lipids include fats, steroids, phospholipids, and waxes. They are made up of one Glycerol and three fatty acid. One main characteristic of lipids is that they do not dissolve in water. Lipids play an important role in living organisms. Some of their main functions include energy storage, hormones, and cell membranes. Fats are composed of a glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules. Just like all lipids, fat molecules are made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fat is used as energy storage in our bodies.

One of the most “haunting” and most search question in human life is “Are all fats bad?” No, as a matter of fact, fats are needed by our bodies to be healthy. We couldn't live without some fats in our diet. Most people need to get around 20%-30% of their food from fats. However, too much fat can be bad for you. It can cause you to be overweight and clog up your arteries. There are two main types of fats: saturated fats and unsaturated fats.

·    Saturated Fats - Saturated fats are solids at room temperature. These fats tend to come from foods like red meat, cheese, and butter. Saturated fats are sometimes called "bad" fats because they have been known to cause higher cholesterol, clog arteries, and even increase the risk for some cancers.

·         Unsaturated Fats - Unsaturated fats are liquids at room temperature. These fats tend to come from foods like nuts, vegetables, and fish. Unsaturated fats are considered much better for you than saturated fats and are sometimes called "good" fats.

Phospholipid

Phospholipids serve a major function in the cells of all organisms: they form the phospholipid membranes that surround the cell and intracellular organelles such as the mitochondria. The cell membrane is a fluid, semi-permeable bilayer that separates the cell's contents from the environment. The hydrophobic head act as the “filter” so that not all things that want to get inside the cell can come inside directly. 

Protein

Biological Molecule - Protein

A biomolecule or biological molecule is any molecule that is present in living organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Macro Molecule	Micro Molecule
Carbohydrates	Glucose
Protein	Amino Acid
Lipid	Glycerol  - Fatty acid

Protein:

amino acid:

Proteins are long chains of amino acids. There are thousands of different proteins in the human body. They provide all sorts of functions to help us survive.  Around 20% of our body is made up of proteins. Every cell in our body uses proteins to perform functions.  When a cell makes a protein it is called protein synthesis. The instructions for how to make a protein are held inside the DNA molecule. The two major stages in making a protein are called transcription and translation.in the transcription process. This is when the cell makes a copy of the DNA. The copy of DNA is called RNA because it uses a different type of nucleic acid called “ribonucleic acid”. The RNA is used in the next step, which is the translation stage. In the translation stage, this is when the RNA is converted or translated into a sequence of amino acids that makes up the protein. 

The translation process of making the new protein from the RNA instructions takes place in a complex machine in the cell called the ribosome. The following steps take place in the ribosome.

1.   The RNA moves to the ribosome. This type of RNA is called the "messenger" RNA. It is abbreviated as mRNA where the "m" is for messenger.
2.      The mRNA attaches itself to the ribosome.
3.      The ribosome figures out where to start on the mRNA by finding a special three letter "begin" sequence called a codon.
4.       The ribosome then moves down the strand of mRNA. Every three letters represents another amino acid molecule. The ribosome builds a string of amino acids based on the codes in the mRNA.
5.      When the ribosome sees the "stop" code, it ends the translation and the protein is complete

Interesting Facts about Proteins and Amino Acids

• We get amino acids from basic foods such as chicken, bread, milk, nuts, fish, and eggs.
• Hair is made up of a protein called keratin.
• A special kind of RNA called transfer RNA moves the amino acids to the ribosome. It is abbreviated as tRNA where the "t" stands for transfer.
• The bonds that link the amino acids in a protein together are called peptide bonds.
• The arrangement and type of different amino acids along the protein strand determines the function of the protein.

Carbohydrates

Biological Molecule - Carbohydrates

A biomolecule or biological molecule is any molecule that is present in living organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.

Macro Molecule	Micro Molecule
Carbohydrates	Glucose
Protein	Amino Acid
Lipid	Glycerol  - Fatty acid

Carbohydrate:

Carbohydrates are one of the main types of nutrients. The foods we eat contain nutrients that provide energy and other things the body needs. Most of the nutrients in food fall into three major groups: proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. The two main forms of carbohydrates are sugars (such as fructose, glucose, and sucrose) and starches. Starch is carbohydrate consisting of a large amount of glucose unit joined by glycocidic bond. Here are the structure of Sugars and Starch:

Sugars

Starch

CASE STUDY-SICKLE CELL ANEMIA DISEASE

James O.W

11 Einstein

Biology Case study

Case:

“On the morning of admission, our patient, a 19-year-old African-American man felt himself to be in his usual state of health.. He ate breakfast and spent the day watching television. However, at approximately 5:45 p.m. when he used the bathroom, he noticed that he could not pull up his trousers due to weakness in his left arm. As he walked out of the bathroom, he noted that he was having difficulty walking because of pain in his feet and indication of consciousness loss. These events transpired rapidly, within about six minutes, at which point his family called Emergency Medical Services (EMS) and our patient was transported to our hospital”

Case Presentation:

After a thorough observation on the condition and symptoms shown, i can conclude that the 19 year old man have a sickle cell anemia disease. Which explain the loss of strength of his left arm and feet with the loss of  consciousness. Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease of the red blood cells (RBC). The disease is caused by a mutation in gene, where the gene naturally helps make hemoglobin:

Hemoglobin is a protein that is contained within the RBC. Hemoglobin is the part of RBC that carries oxygen to and carbon dioxide away from the body cells. Hemoglobin are made up of four polypeptide chains. so it has quaternary structure. Each chain itself are known as goblin. in those four polypeptide chains it is made up of two alpha chains and two beta sheet. in their natural shape, RBC are round with narrow centers resembling a donut but without a hole in the middle shape. this gives normal hemoglobin flexibility to travel through even the smallest blood vessels, however, with people that have sickle cell anemia; just like the 19 year old man above; the RBC have an abnormal crescent shape. This makes them sticky and inflexible.

with the change of shape and formation, those abnormal crescent shapes RBC get trapped in small vessels and block blood from reaching different part of the body. this cause pain and tissue damage that will result in the body to lack of oxygen needed. That explain why the 19-year-old man loses strength of his arm and feet and even starting to lose consciousness. That is because the oxygen needed by the arm and feet did not reach them, since the oxygen from the RBC got stuck in small vessels when they are still on the way. And the extreme and dramatic loss of oxygen needed can lead to loss of consciousness , because our brain did not receive the oxygen it needed.

In order to cure sickle cell anemia of the 19-year-old man, it is suggested for him to take certain action to cure his disease, such as:

• taking Antibiotic to fight certain infections.
• Taking Hydroxyurea (Droxia, Hydrea).When taken daily, hydroxyurea reduces the frequency of painful crises and may reduce the need for blood transfusions.Hydroxyurea was initially used just for adults with severe sickle cell anemia. Studies on children have shown that the drug may prevent some of the serious complications associated with sickle cell anemia.
• having  blood transfusions. Blood transfusions increase the number of normal red blood cells in circulation, helping to relieve anemia
• taking pain relieving medications. To relieve pain during a sickle crisis, your doctor may advise over-the-counter pain relievers and application of heat to the affected area.

or by taking experimental treatment such as:

• Gene therapy. Because sickle cell anemia is caused by a defective gene, researchers are exploring whether inserting a normal gene into the bone marrow of people with sickle cell anemia will result in the production of normal hemoglobin.
• Nitric oxide. People with sickle cell anemia have low levels of nitric oxide in their blood. Nitric oxide is a gas that helps keep blood vessels open and reduces the stickiness of red blood cells. Treatment with nitric oxide may prevent sickle cells from clumping together. Studies on nitric oxide have had mixed results so far.
• Drugs to boost fetal hemoglobin production. Researchers are studying various drugs to devise a way to boost the production of fetal hemoglobin. This is a type of hemoglobin that stops sickle cells from forming.
• Statins. These medications, which are normally used to lower cholesterol, may also help reduce inflammation. In sickle cell anemia, statins may help blood flow better through blood vessels.